Buried beneath layers of hardened volcanic rock, Herculaneum remains one of the ancient world’s most enigmatic treasures. Devastated by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, this Roman city—less famous and less crowded than its sister, Pompeii—offers a unique window into antiquity. Often described as an “open-air archaeological laboratory,” much of Herculaneum lies unexcavated, promising remarkable discoveries that continue to captivate historians, archaeologists, and visitors alike.
A City Frozen in Time
For centuries, Herculaneum puzzled archaeologists: where were the human remains? Unlike Pompeii, where victims were uncovered early in excavations, Herculaneum’s dead remained elusive until the 1980s. Researchers then discovered approximately 300 skeletons in waterfront warehouses, where desperate residents sought refuge from the eruption. Tragically, they were incinerated by a 550°C (1,022°F) surge of volcanic gas, their bodies vaporized, leaving only jewelry and metal objects intact. This haunting discovery, famously depicted on a May 1984 National Geographic cover, represents the largest collection of ancient skeletons ever found, offering a stark reminder of Vesuvius’ wrath.
While Pompeii’s victims were entombed by pyroclastic flows and calcified ash, Herculaneum faced a different fate: it was engulfed by searing mud and gas that solidified into stone. This petrified layer, now up to 25 meters thick, has made excavation far more challenging than at Pompeii. Much of the ancient city lies beneath modern Ercolano, a lively Naples suburb closer to the Campania capital than Pompeii. Spanning roughly two hectares (5 acres), Herculaneum’s buried streets, temples, homes, and shops hold secrets preserved by the very disaster that destroyed them.
A Unique Preservation
The volcanic mud that entombed Herculaneum, while difficult to excavate, created extraordinary conditions for preservation. Unlike Pompeii’s ash-covered remains, Herculaneum’s solidified mud protected organic materials, including wood—a rarity in ancient sites. Beams, shelves, doors, beds, and even a cradle have survived, offering an intimate glimpse into Roman daily life. As Francesco Sirano, director of the Herculaneum Archaeological Park, notes, the site is a living laboratory, with recent finds like a piece of wood in a fleeing resident’s sack hinting at future breakthroughs.
Spanish historian Daniel García Varo, author of Herculano. La ciudad del Vesubio—the first Spanish monograph on the city—emphasizes Herculaneum’s unparalleled insights. “Herculaneum reveals the essence of Roman life: trade, daily routines, art, culture, and religion, all preserved within a few hectares,” he explains. The city’s preservation, a direct result of the eruption, makes it a singular archive of antiquity.
A Quieter, Living Archaeological Site
Compared to the bustling excavations of Pompeii, Herculaneum maintains a quieter presence, with fewer tourists and ongoing restoration projects. In late May, the site feels alive with potential, its black volcanic stone and Roman paving slabs dotted with closed-off houses undergoing excavation or repair. Soon, visitors will access the ancient beachfront—now inland due to coastal shifts—where reproductions of the warehouse skeletons will bring the tragedy to life.
Herculaneum’s preservation of organic materials sets it apart. A recent exhibition at the Museum of Herculaneum, located a kilometer away in the Sito Reale di Portici, showcased wooden artifacts: chests, stools, a boat, tablets, and even a purse. These objects, strikingly similar to modern furniture, create an emotional connection to the Romans who used them 2,000 years ago. The House of the Bas-relief of Telephus, recently opened to the public, features painted wooden remains that captivate visitors and scholars alike, including García Varo.
Scientific Insights from the Ashes
Herculaneum’s discoveries extend beyond artifacts to the scientific. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, former director of the Herculaneum Conservation Project—a collaboration between the Packard Humanities Institute, the Italian State, and the British School at Rome—studied septic tank remains to uncover details about the diet and health of Herculaneum’s 4,000 residents. From cheese tainted with brucellosis to fish still consumed in the Bay of Naples, these findings offer a “360-degree” view of ancient life. Sirano highlights how skeletal remains, tartar on teeth, and even stomach bacteria reveal diets, diseases, and daily habits.
Yet, Herculaneum’s story is far from complete. Two-thirds of the city remains unexcavated, a “precious but limited resource,” according to Wallace-Hadrill. Advanced technologies are key to unlocking its secrets gradually, ensuring discoveries are studied with precision. The Villa of the Papyri, one of the first sites excavated, holds a famed library still under investigation. Located outside the main site, its exploration has paused for safety, but its partially uncovered treasures—displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples—hint at what lies beneath.
A Cultural Time Capsule
Herculaneum’s artifacts, from a statue of Pan with a goat to luxurious villas, reflect the cultural richness of Roman life. The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, with rooms now organized by site, showcases Herculaneum’s finds, underscoring their beauty and significance. García Varo describes the potential of the unexcavated city as “overwhelming,” with three-quarters of its homes, shops, and public buildings—likely including religious and political structures—still buried under petrified rock.
A Journey into the Past
Herculaneum is not just an archaeological site; it’s a portal to a lost world. Its preserved wood and skeletons evoke a profound connection to the Romans who lived, worked, and perished there. As Wallace-Hadrill notes in his book Herculaneum: Past and Future and the BBC documentary Life and Death in Herculaneum, the city’s artifacts transcend science, stirring emotions with their timeless familiarity.
For visitors, Herculaneum offers a quieter, more intimate experience than Pompeii, with the promise of new discoveries around every corner. As excavations and research continue, this Roman city beneath Vesuvius remains a testament to both the destructive power of nature and the enduring legacy of human life.
